Morphological Structure And Function of Plant

Plants usually consists of the roots under the surface ground and shoots (shoot) which is above the ground.

• Roots

Root dry weight typically 1/3 the entire plant body. Roots adapt to their duties, namely absorption, inaugural tegaknyatanaman and storage. Branching root complex and irregular because there jointed and surface area.

When the primary root into the main root is called a taproot and when the primary root atrophied replaced root fibers to form adventitious roots. Generally, plants with fibrous root systems, shallow rooted and sensitive to drought but rapid response to variations in fertilization.
Particular plant species enlarged and fleshy roots as a result of food storage in the form of starch and sugars.

•  Pucuk

Shoots (Shoot) is a central axis with embelan-embelan. Rods (middle axis) which supports the leaves that produce food and connecting roots mengabsorbsiair and nutrients. Plant forms an upright and rigid rod that has a growing point of actively considered normal form, while other forms are considered aberrations. Modittkasi rod, it is very different from the morphology of the original, but struktumya still like stems that have books, leaves (or structures like scales and functions in the transport and storage, modification of the stem above the ground (crown, spur) and underground (bulb, corn, rhizome, tuber, etc.). Many of these modifications contains a number of important food reserves for the breeding of plants.

Buds (buds = bud) that embryonic stem nature. The buds are a source of potential for further growth. The bud can produce leaves, flowers or both are called leaf buds, flower buds and two.
Leaves in higher plants is a means of photosynthesis, leaf is embelan flat on the stem so that the expanding surface for light absorption. The anatomical structure of the vascular system in leaves and leaf veins comprise branching, branching leaf veins on dikotyl like nets were on monokotyl parallel.
Flower shows both structure and size. Sepals (calyx) is covering the flower petals while still buds. Petal (Corolla) ie crowns bunga.Stamen that male reproductive organs composed of anther containing pollen. Mature pollen anther issued through the broken wall.

Pistil (consisting of one or several carpel), namely the female reproductive organs, usually containing ovule and ovary that supports enlarged bud style called stigma. Ovule will develop into seeds were grown into buah.Bunga ovary consisting of Sepal, Petal, stamen and Fistil called full flower. Fruit botanically show adult ovary and other parts of the flower associated with it. Grouping pieces can be according to the number, which is contained in the ovary wall of the structure. Single fruit, composed of a single ovary. Dindingovary or pericarp is composed of Rxocarp (outer), mesocarp (middle), endocarp (deepest).

Single fruit if all pericarpnya called fleshy berry fruit buahberi.Buah berryatau hard outer skin (exocarp) is called Pepo Single fleshy fruit that has endocarp like a rock known as drupe or stone fruit. Dried fruit is fruit that the entire skin becomes dry and hard when ripe, dried fruit whose skin chapped cooking time eg on legume pods, dried fruit together with seeds pericarpnya called caryopsis. Fruit compound, derived from the flower which has many yan Receptacle Fistil the same. Individual fruit of the strawberry fruit compound (strobery), the fleshy part that is eaten is Receptaclenya.

• Seeds

Mini plant seeds essentially in a state of unfettered development. Seeds that mature ovule containing an embryo and food reserve with integument differentiated into testa. Most grains contain a supply of foods derived from endosperm tissue (corn) and on the other cotyledons act sebagaialat seed storage makanan.Perkecambahan show changes unfettered growth into active growth.

The use of Energy for The Plant Activities

The use of energy for the plant activities

Solar energy is the main source hubungannnya with plant growth, ninety percent of the dry matter of agricultural crops derived from changes in carbon through photosynthesis process that depends on light.

Lately, many biologists are trying to calculate the productivity of the plant with solar energy and attention catching amendments to chemical energy through photosynthesis.

Materials and finishes the process of photosynthesis is written as follows

(673,000 light energy calories + chlorophyll)

6 CO₂ + 12 H₂O à     C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ + 6 H₂O

Solar light energy used comes from the wavelengths of 0.4 to 0.7 mikron.Efisiensi photosynthesis is affected by the rate of photosynthesis. The rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing light to some extent, although the rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing light intensity, but the increase is slow so that the capture efficiency of light decreases. If a high light intensity is relatively more upright light reflected by the leaves. The entry of light into the plant canopy is affected by the arrival of beam angles and arrangement of leaves, canopy ideal for light distribution has a uniform leaf arrangement, at the top of the canopy has a more upright leaves and smaller leaves being arranged horizontally below.

The concept of energy flow in agriculture

With regard the plant as a catcher, change and energy storage, then the resulting effort to raise the efficiency and productivity of plants.

In areas of dense plants, some environmental factors may soon be reduced, light, soil moisture and nutrients. This is a limiting factor in agriculture, fertilization is one good way to increase production.
Agricultural efficiency can be obtained by pcrbaikan plants through plant breeding.

One attempt to expand tentacle energy by extending the growing season for example, use the greenhouse for plants that allow input technology and large capital such as horticultural crops in temperate zones.

Trying to influence the rate of photosynthesis by way of exchange of CO2 between the leaves and the atmosphere around it. Winds in areas previously overlooked, maize yields could be improved if the rows are directed perpendicular to the wind, so that the plant shoots the breeze and the circulation and mixing of air.

Understanding the world of food in agriculture

Understanding Food

Food is anything that comes from biological sources and water, whether treated or untreated, which is applied as a food or beverage for consumption human being, including food additives, food raw materials and other materials used in the preparation, processing, and or manufacture of food or drink (Law No. 7 th.1996 on Food). And nutrition are substances or compounds contained in food consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals and plants that are beneficial to growth and human health.

For plants, the food itself was synthesized by energisinar solar, micro-organisms requires only a simple energy source. For animals require food which include plants in the form of complex molecules.

Food shortages could lead to a result that is difficult to tolerate, especially in children under five so the food becomes a very important issue and determine the level of health (physical, mental, social).
Food shortages in Indonesia appeared in the form of: (1) Lack of calorie-protein (NOA); (2) Lack of vitamin A; (3) endemic goiter and kretinin, (4) Nutritional anemia (iron deficiency).

Food shortages and malnutrition, particularly in children under five can degrade the quality of its human, so the quality can be very limited human resources.

Government policy initially with B1MAS program, INMAS, Insus, then SUPRA Insus; Improvement of the nutritional value of food consumption through the Program is improvement of people's diet (PMMR) as well as the diversification of nutritious food.

After the Law No. 7 th.1996 on Food, food launched by the Government on food security programs that have meaning: A food fulfillment of conditions for households which is reflected in the availability of adequate food, both in quantity and quality, safe, equitable and affordable.

Calorie Requirement For Humans

Nutritional food is a substance or compound found in foods consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals as well as derivatives that are beneficial to growth and human health.

Food needs for humans, is actually very difficult to determine and depends on the selection of materials and the number of kondisinya.Tingkat efficiency in the body is dependent composition, digestive system, body size, type of work, age is also the level of human health.

In Indonesia today set food security as a program that aims to: (1) Ensuring the availability of food and nutrients in the required quantity and quality; (2) The prices are affordable for every family; (3) Having regard to the income of farmers, ranchers and fishermen.

The human need for food menu depends among other things on the age, for example: (1) Toddlers need a high quality menu with a sufficient quantity; (2) Human age requires effective quality menu with enough quantity according to her work; (3) Elderly needs a customized menu condition.

Vision food security program: (1) The availability of adequate food, equitable, secure, and affordable; (2) Optimization of domestic resources through intensification, extension, diversification, and rehabilitation; (3) Food Processing (agro-industry) in order to increase revenue; (4) The food distribution system; (5) Diversity of food; (6) standard of living increases.

BIMAS program, INMAS, Insus, and the last Insus SUPRA SUPRA Insus + CORPORATE FARMING has succeeded in realizing self-sufficiency in rice in 1984 but has fluctuated until today.
The causes of these fluctuations, among others: (1) Climate; (2) Plant Pest Organisms (OPT); (3) natural disasters; (4) The monetary crisis; (5) the decline of productive land; (6) The application of cultivation techniques are not environment-friendly; (7) Often the lack keperpihakan on farmers.
Common problems encountered include: (1) The population is still increasing; (2) There is no conversion of productive land in Java; (3) shifting consumption from rice to non-rice; (4) The demands of greater quality and quantity; (5) Damage to the biological balance; (6) The more the narrowing of forest areas, especially in Java.

Various Cclassification Plant

Various classification

The purpose of simplifying the classification of living things are the objects studied so easily recognizable and may eventually be used for the benefit of man. A number of organisms can be classified according to certain system or a system that was followed. By comparing the characteristics and its properties that show a lot of / at least similarities and differences that exist between organisms with one another, we can determine much close kinship. To study the diversity of living things with their classification can be done in various ways, such as: identify the object / examples / pictures, ask the experts, and use the key determination dichotomy. From time to time, the classification system is experiencing growth or changes in accordance with technological advances. There are three kinds of classification systems in living beings, which is based on Artificial Systems (Artificial), System Natural (Natural), and System phylogeny.

• Artificial Classification System (Artificial)

This classification system is much linked to the interests of human life, habitat, or the habit of living organisms thus more easily recognized or understood. The goal is to make it easier to know xylem / properties and benefits of the organisms studied, and so it would be easy strived for cultivation according to their needs. The downside of this artificial classification is an organism has the benefit of a variety, so it can not be classified in one class only. For example, red pepper plant (Capsicum annuum) can be classified as vegetable crops, medicinal plants, crops, tanamanhortikultur, herbaceous crops, industrial crops (chili sauce), ornamental plants, and others. Similarly, the chicken can be classified as laying birds or broilers, and also the class Aves that are part of the sub-phylum of vertebrates. In plants known to some basic classification, such as:

1. By age: There are annual plant or a year (example: red pepper and sunflower) and there are annual plants (eg pine, teak, Rasamala, mango, teak, alpuket, and so on.
2. Based usefulness: There is food crops (eg, rice, maize, wheat), there horticultural crops (Example: ornamentals, vegetables, and fruit), there are plantation crops (eg rubber, oil palm, sugar cane), and there are plants refreshment (eg coffee, cocoa), and herbs (eg turmeric, ginger, Intersection-findings), and so on.
3. Based on adaptability / habitat: There is a plant hidrofit (plants like the aquatic environment, such as kale, genjer, hyacinth), there are plants serofit (plants resistant dry areas, such as cactus), and there are plants mesofit (plants that like soil containing water are quite alone, or like areas experiencing drought and rainy rotation balance, such as: mahogany, teak).
4. Based on the life habits (habitus): There is a herbaceous plant (wet, grass, such as: cabbage, carrots), there is a herbaceous plant (small trees woody, like hibiscus, cotton), no plant trees (eg mango, teak), and No plant liana (climbing, like: yam), there epipit plants (plants live attached to other plants, such as orchids), and parasitic plants (plant life and the ride is detrimental to the host for example: the parasite, dodder.
5. Based on the nutritional content or substance primarily: There is a plant source of carbohydrates (eg rice, cassava, corn, sago), there are plant sources of protein (eg, soybeans, green beans, plant sources of fat (eg, pecans, coconut, palm), and plant so
6. urces of vitamins and minerals (for example: a wide variety of vegetables and fruit).

• Natural Classification System (Natural)

Natural Classification System is based on the characteristics of natural easily recognized as the morphological characteristics of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers or reproductive organs. In the classification system of natural / traditional among others pioneered by Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) who laid the foundations of classification on a regular basis in the provision of scientific names. In the classification system, he was very concerned about the order of the taxon as stated above. He divided the living world into two Kingdom, namely: Plantae and Animalia.

• Phylogeny Classification System

The classification system is basing classification phylogeny of organisms along the line of evolution or nature of the genetic development of an organism from the first to the cell into its present form. This classification system is affected by the development of the theory of evolution. Different morphological organism, it does not necessarily have genetically different as a result of the interaction of genes-genes with its environment as described in the initial description of this module, namely as a result of the diversity of genes on the individual level. Excess phylogeny classification system is easy to see the degree of kinship between individuals.

 Groups of individuals at the level of individual taxa is demonstrating this kind can be crossed and produce fertile offspring. Therefore, individuals at the level of the same genus may be crossed only produce offspring sterile like a cross between a lion (Felis leo) with a wide leopard (Felis tigris) produce the kind Leopons (lion-head, but the body tiger) barren, especially at the level of the taxon higher. Flow classification phylogeny like Whitaker (1969) considered that the division of the World (USA) Beings into two categories is not appropriate, because there are some groups of living things are categorized to both. For example, Euglena, Volvoc, Chlamydomonas, etc. is chlorophyll and move freely with flagelnya that form between plants and animals, so he put it into a separate Kingdom, namely the Protista. Similarly, class fungi possess heterotrophic (saprophytic), lack chlorophyll, and the content of reserve food is glycogen, as well as body tissue never form a complex network that indicates something far different nature of the plant, so he put Kingdom alone, namely Mycota. 

One more thing is the group of bacteria, even if the cell has walls made of cellulose, but the organism is not able to form a network (only able to form colonies), are not even able to organize DNA / DNA into chromosomes and the inability to package the material the cell nucleus into an organelle nucleus, so it is a group of prokaryotic organisms. This class of prokaryotic organisms all his life only capable of forming the body of the cell or colony alone, so he named it as the Kingdom Monera.

Classification Plant and Basics Classification

Classification Plant 

Classification is the process of setting up plants in the levels of the corresponding class unity is ideal. According Rideng (1989) classification is the formation of taxon-taxon with the aim of seeking uniformity in diversity. It is said that classification is the placement of organisms sequentially at a particular group (taxon) that was based on similarities and differences.

While (Tjitrosoepomo, 1993) says that the basis for holding classification is uniformity, commonalities that is used as the basis for holding classification. So each taxonomic unity has a number of similarities in the nature and characteristics.

Taxonomic unity whose members showed the same properties and characteristics that many would have been the unity of taxonomic units smaller than unity taxonomy whose members showed fewer similarities. This classification was reached to unify the factions together and separating the different factions. The result is a regulatory process that is a classification system.

Basics Classification
Based on the equation: We can classify living organisms based on similarities. According to you, based on their characteristics, bananas and corn can be classified as a living thing. By observing the characteristics, we can enter in a group of banana and corn plants. Because the leaves, stems, and roots, both groups of plants. Or, can also be classified as an herb plant, because it has a juicy stems.

• Based Differences: Although bananas and corn is one group, namely the seed plants, we can also separate the two as distinct groups based on different characteristics. For example by looking at the completeness of the leaves. Bananas have a leaf midrib, petiole and leaf blade, resulting in the group's full leafy plant. While corn, it has a leaf midrib and the leaf blade, so that in the group of leafy plants incomplete.
• Based Benefits: Grouping is one effort in classifying. Almost everyone does the classification of living organisms. In the plant world, we classify plumeria, orchids, beautiful homeland, shelled, carnations, and hibiscus to the group of ornamental plants. Galangal, turmeric, ginger, pepper, cloves, and nutmeg grouped into spice plants. Peanuts, beans, and red beans grouped into pea plants. Goats, cows, buffaloes, and rabbits were grouped into livestock. Classification can be done by anyone, origin have a basis and a clear goal. Such as bananas, grapes, strawberries, guava, orange, guava, and mango included in a group of fruit trees. Basic grouping is that these plants can be used for edible fruit, while the goal is to enable people to take advantage of these plants as a fruit.
• Based on Morphology and Anatomy Characteristics: The classification is based on similarities or differences in certain characteristics. The characteristics that are used primarily morphological characteristics and anatomy. Morphological traits are visible on the outside of the living body, while the anatomy are traits that exist inside the living body. In plants, the traits that can be used in classifying may include morphological characteristics, such as flower color, flower shape, grain shape, grain hardness, tree shape, trunk shape, leaf shape, and others. In addition, can also use the characteristics of anatomy, for example ada- least transporter beam, presence or absence of cambium, and the presence or absence of tracheal cells.
• Based on the characteristics of Biochemistry: During development, the characteristics that can be used in the classification is not only characteristic morphology and anatomy, but also characteristics of biochemistry, for example, the types of proteins, the types of enzymes, presence or absence of membrane organelles of cells. DNA or nucleic acid is also used to determine the kinship of living things.

Plant Farm and Definition of Agriculture

Plants as producers of food, clothing materials, building materials, fuel and others. Agricultural crops in the broad sense is all the plants used by humans for any purpose (, consisted, 1982)

So it has a meaning, a useful economic and human life. The number of species is very much ± 1000 -2000. Approximately 10% important in trade dunia.Khusus for food-producing agriculture spesies.Kegiatan pepper 15 covering culture farming and raising livestock is the oldest human culture. But compared with the history of human existence, these farming activities including the still new. Previously, people only hunt animals and collect food for consumption.

In line with the increase in human civilization, pertanianpun evolved into a variety of systems. Ranging from the simplest systems to sophisticated and capital intensive. Various agricultural technology was developed in order to achieve the desired productivity.

On the other hand, pertanianpun science develops. Agricultural science then grow branches, specialized, such as agronomy, soil science, socio-economic, crop protection, etc.

Advances in science and technology, improvement of human needs, forcing humans to spur productivity drain the land, while the carrying capacity of the environment have a tolerance threshold. Thus, the increase in productivity will lead to environmental damage, which in the end would be detrimental to humans as well. Departing from the awareness that then comes the demand for sustainable agricultural systems.

Definition of Agriculture

One sector of the economy is agriculture, which is the application of reason and human work through biological production process control plants and animals, so it is beneficial to humans.

Plants can be described as the primary factory for using basic materials directly from a1am can produce organic materials that are beneficial to humans, either directly or indirectly.

Agricultural development
Agricultural development is closely linked to the development of any condition of society.
examples:

1. Primitive still with hunting system by collecting forest products.
2. People who have a more advanced example, the acquisition of the fire affect the development of agriculture.
3. After knowing the simple management, are also influential in improving the quality of plants and animals, beginning of domestication, selection and to the adaptation.

Definition and Scope of Agronomy

Definition of Agronomy
Agronomy can be termed as a production plant, and means a plant and its environmental management efforts to obtain results as the destination. There are two objectives, namely to maximize output or input in order to minimize the preservation of the land is maintained.

At the beginning of human life on earth, just live from foraging on the forest products directly. The next development, more and more members of the group, then there is a place to settle and begin farming on the land around their homes and began raising cattle and formed the yard.
After that, growing in the forest to clear land for cultivation, so it can only be planted a few years ago to move, often known as the land moves.

The increasing population, these systems can not be maintained, then trying to keep the level of soil fertility and becoming known cultivation techniques (agronomy).

Imbalances increase of population than the addition of food products to be subject studied by the field of Agronomy. Among other efforts with the expansion, the use of high yielding varieties, improved management in various acts of agronomy and its implementation.

Human development has sought to cultivate plants in the world is estimated 350,000 species, into a plant which is useful for life. It is estimated, agricultural crops worldwide could reach 10,000 - 20,000 species of. The number of plants that are economically suited to human activity may be about 1,000 - 2,000 species of. Fifteen species are complementary parts of the world major food crops: rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barlai, sugar cane and sugar beet, potatoes, yams and cassava, soybeans, peanuts and peanut jogo; banana and coconut. 

Annual production in million tonnes of the world's 30 species of important crops. In Indonesia until now known six agricultural system: cultivation, yard tegal system, system of rice fields and the plantation system. Agricultural activity is the manufacture of organic material (sugar, flour, lignin, etc.) Of inorganic substances (water, carbon dioxide, etc.), with its factory located in the cells of green leaves, and energy cahayamatahari.

Scope of Agronomy
Since the fields of breeding, until the management of the plant and it is very broad, since the seed grows to its environmental management.

Understanding the definition and Agronomy

Sadjad (1976) Agronomy as a branch of agricultural sciences field which includes the management of production and generate maximum production.

Consisted (1982) Science Agronomy is the study of how the management of agricultural crops and the environment to obtain maximum production.

The maximum production bermaknabaik qualitative kuantitatifmaupun. Management carried out at various levels from simple to advanced, and in time the effectiveness and efficiency turned out dipengaruhiolehtingkat human culture.